Baseball s Favorite Pastimes Since The First League

Introduction Baseball has been one of America’s favorite pastimes since the first league was formed, all the way to the present day. The first section in this research paper will explain some of the games baseball was based on, the places they are from, how they are played, and the people who came up with the game. In the second section, some of the leagues will be listed, with some of the teams, who established the league, and when they were established. In the third section, famous players in baseball history will be listed as well as the teams they played for, the position they played the most and was the best at, and how they affected the world. In the fourth and final section, Famous baseball teams will be listed, with the founders of the team, the year they were founded, and one of the star players. The writer hopes that the reader will learn many interesting facts while reading this research paper. Games Baseball Was Based On Rounders is the main game that baseball was based on. It is a game from Ireland where the offence team tries to score runs by swinging a club (Either wood, plastic, metal, etc.) at a leather coated ball of cork (a baseball), while the defensive team tries to field the ball and get the runner out. The game of Rounders is much less safe than baseball as there are no mitts, pads, or even helmets. Rounders is still a very popular sport all over Europe. It was invented by the famous author John Newberry in the lateShow MoreRelatedBaseball : America s Pastime Of The Past1255 Words   |  6 PagesBaseball: America’s Pastime of the Past A pastime is a hobby that is performed in someone’s spare time. The term America’s pastime is something that the entire nation enjoys and participates in. Since its creation, baseball has taken the top spot as the nation’s favorite recreation. For generations it filled the homes of Americans whether it be via television, conversation, or participation. Families would travel together to their local baseball stadium and root for the home team. KidsRead MoreBaseball Is America s National Pastime976 Words   |  4 Pagespeople tune in to watch their favorite sports being played. Over the years baseball has traditionally been known as the national pastime among all sports, but the rich tradition and history behind baseball is still around and noticed, with that being said, baseball is still referred to as America’s national pastime. This can be attributed to many factors including a superior television product, more controlled violence, and legaliz ed gambling with fantasy football and baseball. Each and every week millionsRead MoreWomen in Baseball1677 Words   |  7 PagesBaseball, some would argue, is America’s favorite past time. 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Americans were viewing and following new entertainments. Sports were one of these entertainments. Amateur and professional athlete’s performance in their own sport was key to the growth of athletics in the 1920’s, because they changed the American attitude towards sports, createdRead MoreStrides Toward Equality in Major League Baseball Essay2871 Words   |  12 Pagesthe Brooklyn Dodgers, and vice president, Branch Rickey, had always been bothered by the unwritten and unspoken color line in major league baseball. In 1945, he took advantage of his power as manager and called for a meeting with Jackie Robinson from the Kansas City Monarchs, a Negro League team (â€Å"About Jackie Robinson†). He had always secretly scouted Negro League teams in hopes of finding the right candidate. One who had enough talent, but also had enough guts to not jeer back at the harsh remarks

The No Child Left Behind ( Nclb ) Act Launching America s...

In 2001, President George W. Bush signed the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act launching America’s education system into an era of standardized testing as a method of holding states and schools accountable for student achievement. With this recent surge of high-stakes standardized testing, teachers are held to increasingly higher expectations of quality instruction and meeting these standards. However, schools are unprepared in achieving the goals of NCLB resulting in years of struggle to improve student success in testing due to flaws in the traditional grading system. Current schools and teachers lack proper grading practices that are inadequate of accurately representing student achievement. With the increased focus on standards, it is imperative that schools begin to implement an effective grading system so that all students and parents are provided accurate feedback of students’ abilities. There are myriad unforeseen consequences when schools use the traditional grading system. For the past century, traditional grading practices and policies that have contributed to much of the failure of student achievement. The use of the traditional grading system has slowly led to the major issue of grade inflation. Most often students’ grade tend to be inflated with the help of non-academic factors such as homework, participation and student effort. High school teachers tend include effort as part of the grade, giving high grades to students who work in class despite whether theyShow MoreRelatedEducation Revolution: Why the No Child Left Behind Act Didnt Work1695 Words   |  7 PagesEducation is the foundation of American society. It empowers the youth of America to become the successful leaders this country needs for the future. Education has been one of America’s top priorities since 1965, when the Elementary and Secondary Education Act was passed. Now, educati on is controlled by the No Child Left Behind Act, which was launched in January 8, 2002. This act was passed with intentions from the government to provide Americans with a more superior education system. HoweverRead MoreImportance Of Education Essay1802 Words   |  8 PagesEducation is the necessity of life that lies next food and water in today’s world where people have a vast knowledge of everything and more and more people are getting access to it and is laying the base for developments in different fields and that is exactly what the Astounding American physicist Albert Einstein had said explaining the importance of education in a person’s life even when they are long beyond their school day till the very last day of their life they keep on using that knowledge

Succubus Shadows Chapter 17 Free Essays

string(24) " of this taken care of\." My initial time with the Oneroi had been a mix of true and false dreams. As time went on – and I really had no way of saying how much of it did go on – the majority of them seemed to be true ones. They were either visitations of awful memories or more glimpses into my current life, meant to demoralize me and make me homesick. We will write a custom essay sample on Succubus Shadows Chapter 17 or any similar topic only for you Order Now I was still torn apart, still feeling more animal than human or succubus or†¦whatever. Yet, the fleeting pieces of rationality within me wondered at the sudden lack of handcrafted visions. One might argue the Oneroi were being lazy. They were just giving me recycled material, and whenever I did see my friends in the world, I got the impression that it was less a dream and more like the Oneroi flipping me onto a TV channel to make sure I stayed distracted and gave them something to feed off of. It almost felt like they were trying to keep me busy because†¦well, they were busy. But why? What had happened? What had Dante been about to tell Roman and the others? Was it enough to make the Oneroi pull some of their attention from me? Or were these simply more mind games meant to leave me in turmoil? I kept hoping I’d see a follow-up to what had happened with Dante, but the Oneroi had other parts of the life I’d left behind to show me. Or, well, parts I hadn’t left behind. Simone was still impersonating me, and the Oneroi wanted me to know. Adding insult to injury, she was helping Maddie and Seth with the wedding. The three of them were out cake shopping, and honestly, I was almost more surprised to find Seth there than I was Simone in her disguise. He’d pretty much kept away from the wedding planning as much as possible, using the pretense that he was no good at decisions and was happy to let Maddie run things the way she wanted. I didn’t doubt the first part of what he said but wondered about the second. In my heart of hearts, the one that believed he was still in love with me, I secretly hoped he was passing it to Maddie just because he was indifferent to it all. I wanted to believe that he really didn’t care about the planning because he didn’t care about the wedding. It was clear, however, that I cared. Or rather – Simone cared. Considering my reluctance at dress shopping, you would have thought Maddie might notice the sudden increase in zeal. Nope. Maddie was too caught up in her own bubble of happiness and welcomed â€Å"my† assistance. So, the three of them set off on a cake adventure, visiting all the bakeries Maddie had compiled and ranked on a list pulled from hours of Internet research. â€Å"You want it creamy,† said Simone, licking icing off her fingers at a bakery in Belltown. Actually, it was more like sucking. â€Å"This is a little too sugary.† The threesome sat at a table where they had been provided with a plate of samples. â€Å"That’s the point,† said Maddie. She was eating a bite-size piece of chocolate cake in a much less pornographic way. â€Å"Mega sugar rush.† â€Å"Yeah, but if you get too much sugar, it just tastes grainy. You want it to slide right over your lips.† She turned to Seth. â€Å"Don’t you think so?† Seth had taken a bite out of a piece of marble cake. â€Å"It is kind of grainy.† Simone gave him a knowing smile, one that seemed to say, See? I know you better than anyone else in the world. Seth held her eyes for a moment, but his expression was unreadable. He turned toward Maddie. â€Å"But we can do whatever you want.† â€Å"No, no,† she said, not sounding too disappointed. â€Å"This is for both of us. I want it to be something you like too.† Seth gave her a mischievous smile. â€Å"Does it matter? It all gets shoved in the face anyway.† Maddie’s eyes went wide. â€Å"No, it doesn’t! Don’t even think about doing that.† â€Å"Guess you won’t know until the time comes, huh?† His smile had grown. Seeing him play with her made me (figuratively) squirm, but I took comfort in seeing a flash of annoyance in Simone’s eyes. Maddie was succeeding where Simone couldn’t. That was how it should be†¦or was it? Maddie’s unwitting triumph over Simone meant she had†¦well, triumphed over me. Or had she? Simone looked like me but wasn’t truly me. Damn. This was all so confusing. â€Å"Seth wouldn’t do that,† said Simone, resting her hand on his shoulder in what was supposed to be a friendly way. Maddie couldn’t see it from her vantage, but Simone’s fingers lightly brushed the back of his neck. â€Å"Not if he wants a good honeymoon.† She spoke lightly, but there was a sly undertone there. Having her sex life brought up in public made Maddie blush. Seth had shifted uncomfortably, but the reason was unclear. Simone’s fingers? The mention of sex? Maybe both. Simone removed her hand, seeming innocent to all the world, except Seth and me. Maddie seemed eager to change the subject from the romantic goings-on of a honeymoon. â€Å"I think you should at least pick the cake flavor,† she said. â€Å"I’m choosing so much else.† â€Å"I don’t know,† said Seth. He still seemed uncomfortable. â€Å"I don’t care if you do it.† â€Å"Yeah, but she wants you to,† said Simone. â€Å"Come on, make one firm decision here. You can’t go wrong. Maddie’ll eat anything you pick.† Loaded statement. Neither Seth nor Maddie acted as though they read anything into it, but I had a feeling Simone had intended it as a reference to Maddie’s very buxom figure. â€Å"Exactly,† said Maddie. â€Å"What’s your favorite flavor?† â€Å"I bet I can guess,† said Simone. â€Å"Chocolate.† â€Å"Strawberry,† said Maddie. Losers. It was vanilla. â€Å"Vanilla,† said Seth. Maddie groaned. â€Å"Naturally. Well, there’s one decision made.† She rose from the table. â€Å"Let’s try a few other places and get the rest of this taken care of. You read "Succubus Shadows Chapter 17" in category "Essay examples" Not much left after this.† They reached the door, and Maddie stopped to glance at Simone. â€Å"Oh, hey. Will you do me a favor? Will you take Seth tux shopping?† â€Å"What?† asked Seth. No neutral face now. He was shocked. Maddie grinned. â€Å"If you don’t have a keeper, you’ll show up at the church in a Billy Idol T-shirt. And it’s bad luck if I go with you.† â€Å"I thought that was just for the bride,† said Seth. â€Å"I want to be surprised,† Maddie countered. â€Å"Of course I’ll go,† said Simone, putting her arm around Seth again in that â€Å"friendly† way. Maddie beamed, and the bakery faded away†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦transforming into Erik’s store. Erik sat at a small table with Jerome and Roman, and – so help me – they were drinking tea. Even Jerome. Roman was visible, which made me think Jerome must have decided they no longer needed to fear the eyes of higher powers who might wonder why my â€Å"human† roommate kept tagging along with Seattle’s archdemon. Erik was tapping his tea cup thoughtfully. â€Å"If your theory is right, it would explain a lot.† These words were directed at Roman. â€Å"The dream quality of the visions. Mr. Jerome’s complete inability to find her.† Jerome’s slightly arched eyebrow was the only indication of his displeasure over the word â€Å"inability.† Erik continued, eyes on his cup as he pondered it all. â€Å"And you’re right†¦of all the creatures you suggested, Oneroi or Morphean demons make the most sense.† Oh! I thought in triumph to the Oneroi. How do you like that, bitches? My friends are on to you. No response came. No dissolving of the dream, as I would have expected. â€Å"But why her?† asked Roman irritably. I had a feeling he’d taken credit for the dream idea, shielding Dante from Jerome’s wrath. â€Å"Why a succubus? Don’t they only care about human dreams?† â€Å"They’re tied to Nyx,† pointed out Erik. Oh, yes. My friends were smart. Smarter than Nancy Drew and the Hardy Boys put together. Maybe even Matlock too. â€Å"The ‘why’ is irrelevant,† said Jerome, speaking at last. â€Å"Whether it’s Oneroi or Morpheans is also irrelevant. If something’s taken her to the world of dreams, she’s completely inaccessible.† Roman frowned. â€Å"Why? Can’t you just go in there and pull her out now that you know?† Jerome gave his son a smile that almost, almost seemed genuinely amused. â€Å"You’re half-human, and it shows. Greater immortals can’t go there. We don’t dream. Only humans do. The way is barred to us.† â€Å"Because you have no hopes or imaginings of what might be,† said Erik. His manner and tone clearly indicated he believed such a thing to be a failing for angels and demons. â€Å"You need a soul to dream.† â€Å"Well, if I’m half-human, then I’ll go there,† said Roman obstinately, cutting off any retort Jerome might have given. â€Å"I dream. So I can enter, right? And I can take on whatever’s there.† There was so much determination in his voice that I half believed he could take on an army of Oneroi right now. â€Å"You have no idea what you’re talking about,† said Jerome. â€Å"Clearly. Do you have any idea what the dream world is like?† â€Å"Do you?† asked Roman dryly. â€Å"I thought you couldn’t go there.† â€Å"Dreams are what fuel human existence. Dreams of power, love, revenge, redemption†¦the dreams of mankind are vast, uncountable. Humans dream both waking and asleep. Those hopes and fears are what put them at risk – they gamble their lives and souls on dreams. You go into the world of dreams, and it’s like stepping into a blizzard. Every snowflake is some human imagining flitting by so quickly, you can’t even see it. All you see is a blur, a tangle of longings and chaos. If Georgina is there, she is one of those snowflakes. You would never find her soul.† Heavy silence fell. Finally, Roman said, â€Å"That was like poetry, Dad.† â€Å"But he’s correct,† Erik told Roman. More silence. Roman glanced between the two of them incredulously. â€Å"So that’s it? It’s hopeless? You’re giving up without even trying to find her?† â€Å"Trying is hopeless,† said Jerome. Demons might not dream the way humans did, but I suspected even he could picture what his superiors would do when they found out he’d lost a succubus. â€Å"Human magic could access the world of dreams, but it’d do no good.† He glanced at Erik, who nodded. â€Å"Someone lost among all that couldn’t be called back. Not even the strongest ritual could do it. Her soul would never hear anything we could muster.† Roman’s face was a mixture of emotions. Anger. Disbelief. And†¦resignation. That didn’t surprise me. Jerome’s face did, however. He had stiffened at Erik’s words, a spark of insight flashing in those cold, dark eyes. â€Å"But you could do the ritual, correct?† he asked Erik. â€Å"You’re human. You’re strong enough to open the way.† Erik eyed him warily. â€Å"Yes†¦but by your own admission, it would achieve nothing. The connection you had to her was theoretically strong enough to possibly summon her back, but you can’t enter. All we’d have is a useless doorway.† Jerome stood up abruptly. He glanced at Roman. â€Å"Find your own way home.† The demon vanished with a showy poof of smoke. And I vanished back into the Oneroi’s prison. They stood there in the dark, glowing from what they’d taken from me. In dreams, though I suffered, I never felt the horrific effects they caused until I returned from them. That was when the agony, energy loss, and confusion hit me. Yet, this time, I wasn’t completely lost to despair. â€Å"You were wrong,† I said. I tried to put some smugness in my voice, but it came out hoarse from my exhaustion. Good God. I was so, so tired. I guess dreaming didn’t necessarily mean sleeping. â€Å"My friends have figured it out. They know where I am.† As always, One and Two were nearly impossible to read. â€Å"What makes you think that was a true dream?† Excellent question. â€Å"Gut instinct,† I said. â€Å"You believe you can trust it?† asked One. â€Å"After all this time? After so many dreams? How can you tell what’s real and unreal?† I couldn’t. I knew when the memories were true – for now – but the â€Å"real world† scenes were harder. Maybe it wasn’t my gut so much as my blind optimism that believed what I’d just seen was real. Two guessed my thoughts. â€Å"You hope. And we’ve fed that hope, making you think you have a chance. So you will wait. And wait. And wait.† â€Å"It was real,† I said firmly, as though that would make it so. â€Å"Even if it was,† said One, â€Å"it meant nothing. You saw for yourself. There is no way to bring you back.† â€Å"Maybe that was the lie,† I said. â€Å"Maybe the rest was true. You mixed it. They figured out where I was, but you didn’t show me the part where they learned how to rescue me. They’re going to do that ritual.† â€Å"They will fail. Nothing can pull your soul from here.† â€Å"You’re wrong.† I didn’t even really know what I was saying. My essence felt like it was tearing apart, and really, the only thing I knew to do was to keep contradicting them. â€Å"And you are naive. You always have been. Lesser immortals carry that weakness over from their human days, and you’re one of the worst. Our mother nearly used your weakness to free herself from the angels. Now it will be your downfall.† â€Å"What do you mean Nyx almost used it?† The Oneroi exchanged glances – very, very pleased ones. â€Å"Your dream. Your fantasy,† explained Two. â€Å"The one she promised to show you if you freed her. You wanted so badly to believe it was possible, that you nearly gave in.† For a moment, I didn’t see them or that perpetual blackness. I was in a dream of my own creation, not theirs. The dream Nyx had sent to me over and over had been one of my future, with a home and a child – and a man. A man I loved whose identity remained a mystery. Nyx had never shown me the ending. Never shown me the man in the dream. â€Å"You are so full of shit,† I said. â€Å"You claim Nyx shows the truth – the future. But how could that vision have been true if I’m also supposed to be locked here for all eternity? They can’t both be true.† â€Å"The future is always changing,† said One. â€Å"That was true when she showed it to you. Your path shifted.† â€Å"Oh, come on! What’s the point of having a vision of the future if it can change at any moment? That’s not a truth or a lie. That’s a guess. And I never believed her anyway. What she showed me was impossible – even if I wasn’t here with you two assholes.† â€Å"You will never know if it was,† said Two. Then, he reconsidered. â€Å"Actually it was possible, but you will live with the knowledge that it’s a future that’s been taken from you.† â€Å"You can’t take what I never had,† I growled. â€Å"Succubi can’t have children. I could never have that kind of life.† What I didn’t add was that one startling thing had come from the dream. In it, I’d had two cats. At the time, I’d only had one – Aubrey. Not long after, I’d found Godiva, who was the other cat in the dream. Coincidence? Or had I truly been on the path to that future, only to have it ripped from me now? As always, the Oneroi could see into my heart and knew what I was thinking. â€Å"Do you want to see?† asked One. â€Å"See what?† â€Å"The man,† said Two. â€Å"The man in the dream.† How to cite Succubus Shadows Chapter 17, Essay examples

Quality Management Plan Business Quality Planning

Question: Describe about the Quality Management Plan for Business Quality Planning. Answer: Introduction The validation of the completion of the project deliverables with an acceptable quality level is the purpose of managing quality. The quality of the output of the project processes used to manage the deliverables and the creation of deliverables are assured by quality management. The level of quality is defined with the help of a quality management plan. Typically the level of quality is defined by the customers. The quality management plan describes how the project is taken and will ensure the quality level of the deliverables and the work processes. It is an integral part of any project management plan. It describes how the quality will be managed throughout the project lifecycle. It gives instructions as to how the project team will implement, communicate and support the project quality practices (Ahuja, 2012). It also clarifies the procedure and processes for conducting quality assurance, quality planning, quality control, and the process of continuous improvement. It is necessar y that every stakeholder is aware and familiar with the quality procedures. The outcome of the whole quality management plan will depend on the products produced and its quality. Here a quality management plan will be developed that will elaborate all the steps required for a successful quality management of products (Chen Wang, 2016). Steps of Quality Management Plan Purpose and Objectives The Quality Management Plan or QMP will authorize the procedures, processes, and activities for making sure of the quality product upon the projects conclusion. Under the purpose and objective heading it will document, a high level, the all-around approach for the management of quality for the project and it defines the plans purpose in delivering the quality product. The main purposes of QMP are to:- Ensure quality is planned Defining the management of quality Defining the quality assurance activities Defining the quality control activities Defining the standard quality that is accepted by all (Hanaysha, Abdullah, Ghani, 2016) Quality Management Scope The scope of the quality management activities will be defined in this section. If there are particular project areas where the application of quality standards is required, then those areas should be mentioned in the quality management scope. The activities of quality management are spread in the whole project lifecycle. From the staring that means from the initiation to the closure, the scope of quality management will appear in all the activities of the project phase (Kilgore, Radich, Harrison, 2011). For attaining success, a project has to meet the quality objectives by utilizing a unitary quality approach that defines the quality standards, measure it and continuously improve it. This step of QMP will be taken in the starting of the process by including stakeholders and quality assurance team members. This will allow the focus of the team on the items related to the quality of the product in the starting stages. This is done to incorporate specific quality activities and standard earlier in the project (Konidari Abernot, 2006). A weekly and monthly measurement report of the quality can be used as a tool to communicate the risks or issues that may arise in the quality. In the quality management scope step of the QMP following elements will be described and defined:- Quality Planning, assurance, and control Quality standards and activities relevant to the product Relevant quality measures and metrics for standards for project product functionality, management performance, deliverables, and documentation and testing. Quality assurance and control roles and responsibilities Software and tools required supporting quality management (Lau, Yam, Tang, 2011) Quality Planning The step of quality planning will be defining the requirements and standards of quality to be used for the project. This step should be performed along with the other planning processes of the project. For example, the changes proposed in the product to meet the described standards of the quality that may require schedule adjustment or cost, and a detailed analysis of risk that may impact the plan. The inputs that can be included in the quality planning includes the Scope Baseline (the work breakdown structure, the scope statement, and work breakdown structure dictionary), the organizational process assets, the stakeholder register, schedule baseline, cost performance baseline, risk register, organizational process assets, and enterprise environmental factors (Lyhne, Cashmore, Runhaar, van Laerhoven, 2015). Some tools and techniques which may come in use in this step for quality planning include quality management methodologies, statistical sampling, flow-charting, design experiments, benchmarking, control charts, the cost of quality, and cost-benefit analysis. Its output will include quality metrics, process improvement plans, quality checklists, quality management plan, and process document updates (O'Mahony Garavan, 2012). The quality planning requires the support of the senior project manager, team, sponsor, and other experienced and important seniors. Implementation and compliance with the quality planning with the QMP is a shared responsibility of all the project personnel. Quality planning includes following processes:- Establishing Quality Standards- the process of quality planning establishes the quality assurance and quality control standards, the project, procedures, standards, and descriptions that the project team may need. The quality process standards, description, and procedures applicable to the project phases will be defined and developed by the quality manager and senior project director in collaboration with the process owners and the team leaders (Wong, Tseng, Tan, 2013). Identify Quality Metrics- this part of the process identifies the metrics that the team may use. The quality manager and senior project director will work in collaboration with the team leaders, and process owners, who have developed and identified the quality metrics that may, needed to apply to the project. At different phases, the metrics which were based on project team established quality standards will be refined and documented in QMP. The quality metrics will be evaluating the goal achievement (Yang, 2011). Create Quality Checklists- the team will be using a quality checklist identified by the quality planning process. As an integral part, the project team will use the quality checklist on the process and product quality reviews. The application process of the quality checklist will be discussed in the process of quality assurance and product quality assurance sections. Problem Remediation- to determine the corrective actions and the improvements required for the process a discussion will take place in a meeting scheduled by the senior project manager separately. The outcome of the meeting will act on, wherever possible for improving the success of future project phases. It will be done by incorporating the experiences and lesson learned during the phase of planning activities. The quality of the project activities and the deliverables will increase through the incorporation of the quality management recommendation came into view from preceding review. This step will help in minimizing the issues at the end of the project and promotes a successful go-live (Gershon Rajashekharaiah, 2013). Quality Assurance Quality assurance is the section of QMP that explain the way to define and document the process of auditing the requirements for the quality and results that would be achieved from quality control measurements for quality standards compliance. It provides confidence that the quality requirements are getting fulfilled and helps in ensuring that the process of the project being used to deliver and manage the projects product is effective and applied properly (Huotari Havrdova, 2016). Throughout the projects life-cycle an iterative quality process will be used to ensure the quality. In quality assurance planning following actions need to be taken:- Determine the key processes need to be reviewed Determine the quality review standards Determine the expectations of stakeholders for effective business process Explain the quality assurance tools and activities Build measurement timelines and concluding actions (Indelicato, 2013) The techniques and tools that can be used for quality assurance process analysis, cause and effects diagrams, cause analysis, quality audits, control charts, quality control logs, and process flow mapping. The output of the quality assurance can be described with the help of organizational process assets updates, project management plan updates, change requests, and project document updates (Ip, 2009). Once all the activities of the quality assurance will be completed the senior project director will be scheduling a regular meeting for reviewing its findings. These reviews will include an agenda that will be a review of project processes, any error or variation, the findings of the audit coming from the quality manager, and the discussion on the initiatives taken or need to be taken on the process improvement. All the changes made will be documented, implemented and communicated to the members of the team regarding the process improvement efforts (Levin, 2014). Quality Control The method of defining and documenting the process to monitor and record the results of the executing the quality activities are known as quality control. This will be done to assess the performance and recommend the necessary changes. This is the part that apply on the product of the project. It includes the acceptable standards and the deliverable performance of the product and the method of measuring them (Li, Yang, Wu, 2008). The actions need to be completed as a part of quality control planning is as follows:- Determine the key deliverables need to be reviewed Determine the quality review standards Determine the correctness and completeness criteria suggested and defined by the customers Explain the quality control tools and activities Build measurement timelines and concluding actions Determine the owners of ongoing improvement and monitoring of project processes (Liang, 2010). Quality control inputs may include the quality metrics, work performance measurements, updated documentation deliverables, project management plan, quality checklists, approved change request, and organizational process assets. In quality control, the techniques and tools that can be used are control charts, cause and effect diagrams, flowcharting, Pareto charts, histograms, scatter diagrams, run charts, statistical sampling, approved change requests review, and inspection (Madadi Wong, 2014). The output can consist of quality control measurements, change requests, validated changes, organizational process assets updates, validated deliverables, project document updates, and project management plan updates. The steps that a quality control process involves are as follows:- Monitoring, validating, and verifying the work products to make sure that the requirements need to fulfilled for quality and scope of work are getting fulfilled or not. Inspection of documentation and deliverables and comparing them to a standard of quality that the stakeholders of the project have defined. To verify that the technical specification and the users requirements are met before as well as after the product gets approved and promoted to a stable production environment. To monitor the output of the workflow progress, detection of problems and defects, and allowing for taking corrective steps before the delivery of the services and products (Persic, Markic, Persic, 2016). Regular meetings will be scheduled by the senior project manager for the review of documents, management, and project. The agenda of the review will be revolving around the review of the products, any discrepancies or variation, and suggestion and discussion of product improvement initiatives (Prida And Grijalvo, 2008). Quality Management Roles and Responsibilities Quality management is the responsibility that has to be taken by all the members of the project team. This section of QMP will describe the primary roles and responsibilities that the project staff will handle in relation to the practice of the quality management for the project. All the role responsibilities and roles need to be clearly documented, defined and agreed upon between the project sponsor, senior project director, and quality manager (Rodrigues, 2007). As they all play a very important role in the quality management for the product. It is essential for a team that it makes sure that the work is completed as per the level which is the adequate quality level from individual work packages till the deliverables of the final project. For the project the quality roles and responsibilities required are as follows: Project Sponsor It the responsibility of the project sponsor to approve the quality standards for the project A project sponsor reviews the quality report and then provides assistance in the resolution of the escalated issues The final acceptances of the project deliverables are to be signed off by authority of the project sponsor (Sagiv Ladany, 2006). Senior Project Director Senior project director makes sure that all the processes, documentation, and tasks are in compliance with the plan and to do so he has to implement the quality management plan It is his responsibility to maintain quality management throughout the projects duration He should collaborate with the quality manager, specialists, and process owners to develop the quality metrics and standards according to the phases. He should ensure the compliance of team members with quality management processes (Starzyrska Hamrol, 2013) Supporting the quality manager in securing resources for performing the quality management Senior project director should participate in the review of quality management as required The quality standards need to be communicated to the project team and stakeholders (Steensen, 2010). Quality Manager A quality manager provides the overall leadership of quality management activities that includes the managing quality reviews and overseeing of the follow-on of the corrective actions He should develop and maintain the assurance plan of the project software quality He should generate and maintain the schedule of activities of software quality assurance He should collaborate with the quality specialist, senior project directors, and process owners for the development of quality metrics and standards (Taboada Coit, 2007). Raise the issues of non-compliance with the senior project director. He should keep the quality management plan updated and maintain the quality standards of the overall project processes and products (Tomazevic, Tekavcic, Peljhan, 2015). Quality Specialist/ Team Leaders/ Managers A team leader has a responsibility to support and oversee the application of quality standards set for the project process He should collaborate with the other team members like the senior project director, process owners, and quality manager in developing the quality plan which includes the quality metrics and standards. As required the team leader should participate in the quality management reviews. He should conduct the inspection of the quality assurance and quality control as appropriate (Tsui, 2010) The tools and methodologies for tracking quality and standards will be recommended by the team leader to establish acceptable quality levels. He should create and maintain the logs of quality control and assurance throughout the project He should conduct the assessment of the process and products, as explained in the plan Metrics need to developed and maintained (Welikala And Sohal, 2008) Process Owners A project owner should oversee and support in the project process by implicating the quality standards on the assigned processes. Keeping collaboration with the other team members that includes the quality manager, quality specialists, and senior project director His participation should be there in the reviews of quality management (Wickramasinghe Perera, 2012) Quality Management Records and Reports The section of the quality management plan that will keep the general information about the types of records and report that gets created and retained as a projects quality activities part. The location of the retention and the report and data format will vary from project to project. By maintaining these records the objective evidence and traceability of the assessment performed can be provided throughout the projects lifecycle. Some examples of the records are the assessment reports of process and products, metrics, weekly and monthly status reports, and completed checklists. A shared document repository can be used by the team members as a part of the quality activities and reviews that will contain the reporting data and the reports produced. The maintenance of the records will be done through the implementation phase of the project (Yang, 2011). Quality Measurements Tools The section of quality measurements and tools will contain a sample or useable log or a table that can be used in taking quality measurements and then for doing the comparison of them against standards and requirements. There are various formats of these forms. To provide documentation of the finding is the most important aspect of this log. Some action needs to be taken if the actual measurements do not meet the requirements or standards. This can be done during the regularly scheduled meeting for the project status or if necessary throughout the life-cycle of the project. Work is going on in the development and designing of a standard project measurements and metrics plan that can be applicable to all the projects (Gershon Rajashekharaiah, 2013). The team can use different tools when activities are performed of quality management for the project (Huotari Havrdova, 2016). The tools that can be used are as follows:- Software Quality Tools Microsoft Office Tools like Excel, Power Point, Word, and Project Test management software Test Management Repository Defect Tracking Software and Defect Management Repository (Li, Yang, Wu, 2008). Project Management Tools Project Server Issues and risk management system Deliverables Repository Software Vendor Problem Reporting Schedule Management and Tracking software (Madadi Wong, 2014) Problems and Solutions Problems Problems that an organization may face while implementing the quality management standards are as follows:- Competitive Markets- the main force and a reason of many other obstacles to quality is the competitive markets. It is a mental barrier that occurs by misunderstanding the definition of the quality. Companies equate quality with high cost, but the actual definition is bringing quality in the product in every function of the company. If the functions of the company are poor then the result in the form of the product will also be poor (Persic, Markic, Persic, 2016). Abdication of responsibility- the poor management practices, competitive environment, and a general lack of higher expectations has inflated the unhealthy and unproductive attitudes. Such attitudes are expressed by saying "It's not my job." Employees are trained to follow management with closed eyes which foster the motivation and creativity of them. Lack of leadership for quality- many layers and levels of management often result in duplication of responsibility and duty. This makes the quality implementation a managements job. This lead to discrepancies in taking the responsibility of quality between employees and the management. Employees involved in production and has a responsibility to incorporate quality in the product do not feel attached with process and hence do not take the initiative to make quality checks as per the customer's demand (Chen Wang, 2016). Deficiency of Cultural Dynamism- every organization has its own work culture which is preferred to be followed by the people associated with it. They like to stick to its old culture, which is in need of change to give the customer the quality he wants from the product. Inadequate cultural dynamism makes it difficult to implement the quality control steps in the organization. Inadequate resources for implementing quality management standards-Most of companys strategic plans do not include the standards of quality management and little funds are being allotted to it. When bringing the new changes in the company to get the adequate quality outcome, requirement of resources increases which affects the budget of the company. Many companies find it as an unnecessary expense for the company (Starzyrska Hamrol, 2013). Lack of Customer focus- most of the organizations strategic plans are not customer driven. They are more profit-oriented objectives in given period. Little market research is done to find out what are the customers requirements and demands from the product related to its quality. Lack of effective measurement of improving quality- QMP focuses on customers demand and need to be fulfilled from the product related to its quality. It is based on the customers feedback in developing the standards of the quality in the product. Many companies lack the effective measurement tools which are necessary to measure the quality and the improvement required in the quality (O'Mahony Garavan, 2012). Poor Planning- when a sound strategy is absent from the planning then it contributes to the ineffective quality improvement. In the starting phase only the planning goes wrong which affects the whole process and the outcome of the quality of the product is not up to the mark. Lack of management commitment- announcing and taking initiative in the implementation of quality management plan are two different things. Just by setting up the steps and design of the quality management plan is not sufficient, implementation and running of is properly is also very important to get the desired outcome from the planning. It is the management duty to effectively implement the quality plan in the organization (Taboada Coit, 2007). Resistance of the work-force- sometimes the work-force employed by the organization becomes unwilling to take up the initiative to improve quality by implementing the quality management plan. The reason may the changes in the procedure that the organization will go through or the extra pressure and workload they will face due to it Lack of proper training- if changes are to be brought in the working of the organization, then training for the changes needs to be given to employees. This will familiarize them with the change. Many times this does not happen and the result is poor implementation of the management plan (Yang, 2011). Recommendations or Solutions For successful implementation of the Quality Management Plan to achieve the Quality Management Standards are as follows:- The purpose towards improvement of the product should be created consistently to bring competitiveness in business and provide jobs to people required to bring the quality management The dependency on mass inspection should be ceased and instead of that the statistical evidences should be considered around which quality is built on. Adopting new philosophy as per the requirement of the new age. Effective work-force, no mistake, best material, and no delays should be the focus of the company. Proper training to the employees regarding the expected changes will help them to become familiar with the new procedures and accept them easily. Still the company find it difficult to implement the quality management plan, and then a thorough search is required to find the exact problem and the factors behind the problem (Prida And Grijalvo, 2008). Conclusion Quality is an important factor that an organization tries to maintain with a lot of efforts. A plan of maintaining the quality of the product as per the demand and requirements of the customers need to be designed and this is done through the quality management plan. There are many steps that are needed to be followed to reach the quality maintenance throughout the projects life-cycle. This includes the quality assurance, control, and role and responsibilities of the people associated with the project and quality management plan. If properly followed, then all the barriers that may arise during the process can be overcome, and total quality can be found in the product. References Ahuja, I. (2012). Total quality management implementation for reducing percent process defects in a manufacturing organisation.International Journal Of Business Performance Management,13(1), 1. Baharum, Z., Nawawi, A., Saat, Z. (2009). Assessment of Property Management Service Quality of Purpose Built Office Buildings.International Business Research,2(1). Chen, Y. Wang, Y. (2016). Application and development of the people capability maturity model level of an organisation.Total Quality Management Business Excellence, 1-17. Gershon, M. Rajashekharaiah, J. (2013). How many steps to quality? From Deming cycle to DMAIC.International Journal Of Productivity And Quality Management,11(4), 475. Hanaysha, J., Abdullah, H., Ghani, N. (2016). Importance of product quality and service quality in developing brand equity.J. For Global Business Advancement,9(4), 390. Huotari, P. Havrdova, Z. (2016). Stakeholders roles and responsibilities regarding quality of care.International Journal Of Health Care Quality Assurance,29(8), 864-876. Indelicato, G. (2013). Total Quality Management for Project Management.Project Management Journal,44(4), e1-e1. Ip, B. (2009). 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List of Acronyms List of Figures Maslows hierarchy of needs Figure 2.1 P4 List of Tables Table of Contents Acknowledgement Ñ- Abstract Ñ-Ñ- List of Acronyms Ñ-Ñ-Ñ- List of Figures 6 List of Tables 6 Table of Content 6 1. Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Research problem 1 1.2 Importance of study 1 1.3 Research questions 1 2. Chapter 2: Motivation and theoretical background x 2.1 Motivation overview x 2.2 Definitions of employee motivation x 2.3 Theories of motivation x 2.3.1 Needs-based theories x 2.3.2 Two-factor theory x 2.3.3Cognitive theories x 2.3.3.1 Equity theory x 2.3.3.2 Expectancy theory x 2.3.3.3 Goal-setting theory x 2.3.4 Reinforcement theories x 2.4 Motivation : Composite summary x 3. 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Although employees derive satisfaction from their work, or places of work, for different reasons, this study was concerned specifically with the investigation of the relationship between levels of satisfaction and the motivation of employees at work. The primary point of departure is that the success of any organization is heavily dependent on the inputs of its workforce, and that such inputs are determined to a large extent by personal characteristics, and by those facets of peoples work environments that motivate them to invest more physical and mental energy into their work. In this way the organizations objectives are pursued and met. Motivation and job satisfaction are therefore regarded as key determinants of organizational success. Importance of study This study demonstrated the importance of employee motivation and job satisfaction in organizational capability and effectiveness. Business has come to realize that a motivated and satisfied workforce can deliver powerfully to the bottom line. It is crucial for any organization, and particularly for those in developing countries with limited skills resources, such as Egypt, to ensure that it develops and retains a loyal, dedicated, committed and able workforce on a consistent basis. Loyal employees who are satisfied with the work that they do and with the culture of the organization they are employed by, and who are consequently motivated to continue their relationship with that organization. Finck, Timmers and Mennes (1998) emphasized that only when employees are excited and motivated by what they do, will business excellence be achieved. 1.3. Research questions What is employees motivation? Why employees need motivation? What is job satisfaction? How to create job satisfaction? How to measure employees job satisfaction? What is the relationship between employee motivation and job satisfaction? Chapter 2: Motivation and theoretical background 2.1 Motivation overview In the current business environment, organizations in all industries are experiencing rapid change, which is accelerating at enormous speed. To be successful in a borderless, competitive global environment, companies must be sure to work hard on especially the people side of their business (Khan, 1997). This view is supported by Finck et al. (1998), who stated that companies must recognize that the human factor is becoming much more important for organizational survival, and that business excellence will only be achieved when employees are excited and motivated by their work. In addition, difficult circumstances, such as violence, tragedy, and fear and job insecurity create severe stress in employees and result in reduced workplace performance. The issue of what motivates employees has set a practical and theoretical agenda for organizational psychologists since the start of the 20th century. Baron (1991, p.9) described motivation as one of the most pivotal concerns of modern organizational research. Van Niekerk (1987) emphasized this point by stating that productivity is a function of both the motivation and the ability of an employee. Therefore, if motivation equals zero, so does productivity. Since employee performance is a joint function of ability and motivation, one of managements primary tasks, therefore, is to motivate employees to perform to the best of their ability. In the field of organizational psychology, work motivation is approached from several angles. For example, some researchers feel work motivation study should start with an examination of the values of employees, since their values determine their needs, and their needs ultimately determine their behavior. A crucial problem for others in contemporary organization theory and research is how best to conceptualize and assess individual differences in motivational tendencies (Kanfer Ackerman, 2000). Sempane et al. (2002) noted that organizations represent highly complex social structures because of their dynamic nature. Employees, who are role players in them, render them competitive through their involvement and commitment. The relationship between organization and employee is characterized by a high level of mutual interdependence, as both parties impact on the others potential for success. Employee motivation and job satisfaction become crucial elements in this relationship. Extensive research has shown that employee motivation and job satisfaction are not brought about in isolation, but rather respond to organizational variables such as structure and working conditions (Schneider Snyder, 1975). 2.2 Definitions of employee motivation Walker (1980) stated that studies over the years have shown little relationship between measures of job satisfaction and performance outputs. Highly satisfied workers may be poor performers, whereas highly dissatisfied workers may be good performers. Several variables influence the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance; although no direct causal relationships between these have been identified as yet. However, it appears that motivation might account for much of the link between an employees job satisfaction and job performance. Motivation, therefore, closes the satisfaction-performance loop, and has to do with a set of interrelated factors that explain an individuals behavior, holding constant the variables controlled or influenced by management, as well as by individual skills, abilities and knowledge. The term motivation is derived from the Latin term movere, which means to move. A great many definitions of the motivation construct have been postulated over the several decades during which this multi-faceted concept has been researched. The rich variety in perspectives on the topic of motivation is illustrated below. Beach (1980) saw motivation as a willingness to expend energy to achieve a goal or reward. This author took somewhat of a behaviorist approach in stating that behavior that is perceived to be rewarding will be repeated, whereas behavior that goes unrewarded or is punished, tends to be extinguished. Beach (1980) did, however, recognize intrinsic motivation as related to the job content and as that which occurs when people perform an activity from which they derive satisfaction from simply engaging in the activity itself. Van Niekerk (1987) saw work motivation as the creation of work circumstances that influence workers to perform a certain activity or task of their own free will, in order to reach the goals of the organization, and simultaneously satisfy their own needs. Du Toit (1990) added that three groups of variables influence work motivation, namely individual characteristics, such as peoples own interests, values and needs, work characteristics, such as task variety and responsibility, and organizational characteristics, such as its policies, procedures and customs. It is interesting to note that the concept of organizational commitment has come to partly replace that of motivation within the field of organizational behavior (Lewicki, 1981). While the concept of motivation is linked to individualistic and task-centered reward systems, commitment seems to be linked to the identification of employees with a collective, that is, in terms of corporate values and norms. As such, management is concerned with cultivating motivation towards realizing the mission and goals of the organization, which are far above the ambitions and goals of any individual in it. 2.3 Theories of motivation Motivation research draws on a large number of theoretical perspectives. Although some of these appear to be less influential than when they were originally postulated, such as Maslows hierarchy of needs theory (Wicker Wiehe, 1999), their contributions as foundation layers and inspirations for subsequent theories are still evident and acknowledged. According to Petri (1996) the vast array of motivation theories are based, in essence, on differing approaches to the origins or sources of motivation, e.g. energy, heredity, learning, social interaction, cognitive processes, activation of motivation, homeostasis, hedonism or growth motivation. Depending on the particular approach adopted, motivation theories are generally classified into three categories, namely needs-based, cognitive, and drive and reinforcement theories (Baron et al., 2002). 2.3.1 Needs-based theories One of the most often-quoted motivation theories is that of Abraham Maslow, which he introduced in 1943 (Van Niekerk, 1987). The basic tenet of the theory is that people are motivated by their quest to satisfy their needs, or deficiencies, which may be grouped in five categories, and that these needs occur in a specific hierarchy, where lower order needs have to be satisfied before those of a higher order nature (Gouws, 1995). Maslow (1968, p.153) asserted that gratification of one basic need opens consciousness to domination by another. Maslows need hierarchy is portrayed in Figure 2.1. maslows-hierarchy-of-needs.jpg Figure 2.1: Maslows hierarchy of needs Needs hierarchy theory has had a positive impact on organizations, as it has focused attention on the importance of addressing employees needs at work (Spector, 2003). In addition, one of its main constructs, the self-actualization concept, has become very popular with especially managers and executives who have accepted this high-level need as a potent motivator (Schultz Schultz, 1998). 2.3.2 Two factor theory Frederick Herzbergs well-known and controversial theory of motivation was postulated in 1954, and developed from his work to determine the attitude of workers towards their jobs (Gouws, 1995). As such, it was originally intended to be a job satisfaction theory, but over time it was its motivational aspects that attracted most attention (Baron et al., 2002). Beach (1980) was of the opinion that this theory constitutes more of a work motivation than general human motivation theory. The basic assumption of Herzbergs theory is that motivation originates from the job itself, and not from other external characteristics, and that those factors leading to job satisfaction (motivators) are separate and distinct from those leading to job dissatisfaction (hygiene/maintenance factors) (Herzberg, 1966). The hygiene factors, which may be equated with Maslows lower order needs, are placed along a continuum, from a state of dissatisfaction, to no dissatisfaction. These factors involve circumstances surrounding the task which do not lead to job satisfaction, but prevent dissatisfaction, if maintained adequately. Examples of these maintenance factors include the level of supervision, job status, work circumstances, service conditions, remuneration and interpersonal relationships (Herzberg, 1966). Motivators, on the other hand, have a direct positive effect on the work situation, and lead to improved productivity. They may be equated with Maslows higher order needs, and are also placed along a continuum from a highly motivated to a highly unmotivated state. Aspects of the job itself, e.g. level of recognition, pleasure of performance, increased responsibility, and opportunities for advancement and promotion, serve as motivators (Herzberg, 1966). 2.3.3 Cognitive theories 2.3.2.1 Equity theory Equity theory was first introduced by Stacy Adams in 1965. Its basic tenet is that people are motivated to achieve a condition of equity / fairness in their dealings with other people, and with the organizations they work for. People make judgments or comparisons between their own inputs at work, e.g. their qualifications, experience and effort, and the outcomes they receive, e.g. pay and fringe benefits, status and working conditions. They then assign weights to these inputs and outputs according to their relevance and importance to themselves. The summed total produces an output / input ratio, which is the key issue in terms of motivation. If a persons output / input ratio is equal to that of another person, equity exists. A state of inequity leads to tension, which the individual tries to reduce by changing one or more elements of the ratio, e.g. increase or reduce his effort. Perceived inequity by the person is therefore the basis for motivation (Baron et al., 2002). This theory helped to provide the basis for studying the motivational implications of perceived unfairness and injustice in the workplace. It also laid the foundation for more recent theories on distributive (how much is allocated to each person) and procedural justice (how rewards and job requirements are determined) (Cropanzano Folger, 1996). In a meta-analysis of many of these theories, 2.3.3.2 Expectancy theory The original thinking behind what has come to be known as expectancy theory, or Vrooms Expectancy-Valence-Instrumentality (VIE) theory, can be traced back to the theorizing of Tolman and Levin in 1932 and 1938 respectively (Petri, 1996). Vroom was, however, the first scholar to elaborate on this thinking in a motivational context in 1964 (Gouws, 1995). Since its origins in the psychological theorizing of some 60 years ago, the expectancy theory has been presented in many variations. Common to all versions is the basic tenet that people base their behavior on their beliefs and expectations regarding future events, namely those maximally advantageous to them (Baron et al., 2002). Essentially, the theory explains how rewards lead to behavior, through focusing on internal cognitive states that lead to motivation. In other words, people are motivated to action if they believe those behaviors will lead to the outcomes they want. The said cognitive states are termed expectancy, valence and instrumentality (Spector, 2003). 2.3.3.3 Goal-setting theory Goal-setting theory was first proposed by Edwin Locke in 1968. Spector (2003) described this perspective on motivation as the assumption that peoples behavior is motivated by their internal intentions, objectives or goals; in other words, by what people consciously want to achieve. According to Locke and Henne (1986) goals affect behavior in four ways: They direct attention and action to those behaviors which a person believes will achieve a particular goal; They mobilize effort towards reaching the goal; They increase the persons persistence, which results in more time spent on the behaviors necessary to attain the desired goal; They motivate the persons search for effective strategies for goal attainment. This theory has an intuitive appeal because of its clear relevance to the workplace (Schultz Schultz, 1998). It is currently one of the most popular theories informing organizational approaches to employee motivation (Spector, 2003). 2.3.4 Reinforcement theories Reinforcement theories, which assume that peoples behavior is determined by its perceived positive or negative consequences (Baron et al., 2002) are based on the Law of Effect Hulls drive theory elaborated on this idea and suggested that effort was the mathematical product of drive, multiplied by habit, and that habit were derived from behavior reinforcement. The consequences of behavior may be tangible, such as money, or intangible, such as praise (Spector, 2003). In this regard, reinforcement theory was highly influential in firmly establishing the ideas relating to incentive and reward systems that are applied in most organizations today. As such, it provided the basis for the notion that rewards should be contingent with individual units of productivity (Schultz Schultz, 1998). As a motivation theory, reinforcement theory has fallen somewhat out of favor, as it merely describes relations between reinforcement and behavior, but gives little insight into motivational processes, e.g. whether or not a person wanted a specific reward, or why. Nevertheless, its relative popularity in the workplace is maintained by research that has shown that rewards can be highly effective in the enhancement of job performance (Spector, 2003). 2.4 Motivation: Composite summary Each of the theories covered has contributed substantially towards current perspectives on and understanding of the concept of motivation in the workplace. The needs theories, for example, are largely responsible for organizations recognition that peoples behavior at work is motivated by highly individualized innate needs and desires (Van Niekerk, 1987). Achievement-orientated people are, for example, driven by a much stronger need for power, affiliation and achievement than most other people (Schultz Schultz, 1998). For this reason, employers need to ensure that they invest the necessary time and effort to assess the personal needs of individual employees, and customize their jobs and working environments accordingly (Walker, 1980). Due to their innate need to produce good work and develop themselves, most employees do not need constant supervision and direction and may, in fact, find such actions very demotivating. In addition, people need to experience their work as meaningful an d challenging, and therefore require considerable input on the part of management to ensure a high degree of job enrichment on a continual basis (Beach, 1980). The cognitive theories of motivation have helped employers to understand that, apart from their motivation being driven by innate needs, employees also apply deliberate conscious thought to their behavior at work. Organizations are aware that people evaluate their inputs on the job against what they receive in return, and that they should therefore pay attention to the equitability between employee delivery and reward (Cropanzano Folger, 1996). It is also prudent for organizations to offer a range of benefits, which may be acquired through different levels of performance, to allow employees to set themselves challenging goals that they may attain via differing means they may perceive as instrumental towards those goals (Spector, 2003). Once employees have met the requirements of their own jobs, and attained certain goals, they expect certain rewards to follow. In this regard, reinforcement theories have contributed much towards the establishment of a wide array of reward and performance incentives systems applied in organizations all over the world today (Beach, 1980). Clearly, the theorizing of many an author and researcher over the years has resulted in the increased ability of organizations to transform these theories into practical and effective measures to address a highly complicated aspect of organizational psychology, namely the motivation of human behavior at work, and to ensure organizational success and profitability in the process. Chapter 3: Job satisfaction 3.1 Job satisfaction overview The concept of job satisfaction enjoys increasing attention from organizations these days, since its importance and pervasiveness in terms of organizational effectiveness has been firmly established quite some time ago. Managers now feel morally responsible for maintaining high levels of job satisfaction among their staff, most probably primarily for its impact on productivity, absenteeism and staff turnover, as well as on union activity (Arnold Feldman, 1986). Organizations recognize that having a workforce that derives satisfaction from their work contributes hugely towards organizational effectiveness and ultimate survival. Job satisfaction is regarded as related to important employee and organizational outcomes, ranging from job performance to health and longevity (Spector, 2003). The importance of job satisfaction in the workplace is underscored by its inextricable connection to a persons entire life. Since a persons job is an all-important part of his life, it follows that job satisfaction is part of life satisfaction. The nature of the environment outside of the job directly influences a persons feelings and behavior on the job . Schultz and Schultz (1998) emphasized that people spend one third to one half of their waking hours at work, for a period of 40 to 45 years, and that this is a very long time to be frustrated, dissatisfied and unhappy, especially since these feelings carry over to family and social life, and affect physical and emotional health. A concept with such tremendous effect on personal and organizational life clearly deserves a corresponding amount of attention. 3.2 Definitions of job satisfaction A great many definitions of the concept of job satisfaction have been formulated over time. Arnold and Feldman (1986) described job satisfaction as the amount of overall affect that individuals have toward their job. Since a job has many characteristics, job satisfaction is necessarily a summation of worker attitudes regarding all these. The good features are balanced against the bad, so that the overall job satisfaction is perceived as high or low. It appears that job satisfaction may be studied from two slightly different perspectives. Firstly, job satisfaction may be treated as a single, overall feeling towards a persons job. Alternatively, researchers may focus on the different aspects that impact upon a job, e.g. its rewards and social environment, and even characteristics of the job itself, such as its content. It is believed that this latter view permits a more comprehensive picture of job satisfaction, as an individual typically experiences different levels of satisfaction ac ross different job aspects (Spector, 2003). 3.3 Theories on job satisfaction 3.3.1 Two-factor theory Two-factor theory relates to job satisfaction as well as it does to motivation, and posits that the things that provide employees with satisfaction at work are not the same as those that bring about dissatisfaction. This is Herzbergs theory of satisfiers and dissatisfiers, or the positive and negative aspects of the job. Dissatisfiers do not lead to job satisfaction, but prevent dissatisfaction if properly maintained, for example, acceptable service conditions. Satisfiers, on the other hand, impact directly on job satisfaction, for example, positive promotion aspects elevate levels of job satisfaction (Gouws, 1995). 3.3.2 Social influence theory Social influence theory holds that people are influenced by how satisfied they believe other workers are with the same job (Van Vuuren, 1990). New employees may, for example, change their initial misgivings about their job when they discover that others performing the same tasks are satisfied with their work. In this sense social influence theory may share certain common features with equity theory. 3.3.3 Affect theory Edwin A. Lockes Range of Affect Theory (1976) is arguably the most famous job satisfaction model. The main premise of this theory is that satisfaction is determined by a discrepancy between what one wants in a job and what one has in a job. Further, the theory states that how much one values a given facet of work (e.g. the degree of autonomy in a position) moderates how satisfied/dissatisfied one becomes when expectations are/arent met. When a person values a particular facet of a job, his satisfaction is more greatly impacted both positively (when expectations are met) and negatively (when expectations are not met), compared to one who doesnt value that facet. To illustrate, if Employee A values autonomy in the workplace and Employee B is indifferent about autonomy, then Employee A would be more satisfied in a position that offers a high degree of autonomy and less satisfied in a position with little or no autonomy compared to Employee B. 3.3.4 Equity theory Equity theory stipulates that people generally want to receive what they consider a fair or equitable return for their efforts at work. Greater satisfaction is experienced if they perceive the return or reward they receive as equitable. These perceptions may be based on previous or vicarious experience, or on peoples observations of other employees, for example (Van Vuuren, 1990). Job satisfaction in this regard is related to the motivation to achieve a condition of equity or fairness in peoples dealings with others. 3.3.5 Dispositional theory Another well-known job satisfaction theory is the Dispositional Theory. It is a very general theory that suggests that people have innate dispositions that cause them to have tendencies toward a certain level of satisfaction, regardless of ones job. This approach became a notable explanation of job satisfaction in light of evidence that job satisfaction tends to be stable over time and across careers and jobs. Research also indicates that identical twins have similar levels of job satisfaction. A significant model that narrowed the scope of the Dispositional Theory was the Core Self-evaluations Model, proposed by Timothy A. Judge, Edwin A. Locke, and Cathy C. Durham in 1997. Judge et al. argued that there are four Core Self-evaluations that determine ones disposition towards job satisfaction: self-esteem, general self-efficacy, locus of control, and neuroticism. This model states that higher levels of self-esteem (the value one places on his/her self) and general self-efficacy (the b elief in ones own competence) lead to higher work satisfaction. Having an internal locus of control (believing one has control over herhis own life, as opposed to outside forces having control) leads to higher job satisfaction. Finally, lower levels of neuroticism lead to higher job satisfaction (T.A, E.A C.C, 1997). 3.3.6 Job characteristics model Hackman Oldham proposed the Job Characteristics Model, which is widely used as a framework to study how particular job characteristics impact on job outcomes, including job satisfaction. The model states that there are five core job characteristics (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) which impact three critical psychological states (experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of the actual results), in turn influencing work outcomes (job satisfaction, absenteeism, work motivation, etc.). The five core job characteristics can be combined to form a motivating potential score (MPS) for a job, which can be used as an index of how likely a job is to affect an employees attitudes and behaviors. A meta-analysis of studies that assess the framework of the model provides some support for the validity of the JCM ( J.R G,R, 1976). 3.4 Creating job satisfaction 3.4.1 Work environment A positive work environment is not only important for our physical, mental and emotional health, but is also important for the results that we produce for the company. The better we feel at work, the more likely we will take pride in our job activities and be loyal towards our place of employment Ways to create a positive working environment: Accept the right position Be a positive person Take responsibility Communicate with your manager Be social 3.4.2 Career development programs In organizational development (or OD), the study of career development looks at: How individuals manage their careers within and between organizations and, how organizations structure the career progress of their members, it can also be tied into succession planning within some organizations. the lifelong psychological and behavioral processes as well as contextual influences shaping ones career over the life span. As such, career development involves the persons creation of a career pattern, decision-making st

Essay --

In recent years, light olefins are used as building blocks for a large variety of chemicals and petrochemicals products that are produced from crude oil. Light olefins are in a class of hydrocarbons with a single double bond and a chemical formula of CnH2n. Ethylene and Propylene are the most important olefins which form the backbone of the petrochemicals market. However, ethylene and propylene have no end use. The highly reactive double bond of the ethylene and propylene makes the molecule ideal for conversion to many useful product such as polymers (eg. polypropylene, polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride), synthetic rubber and fuel components. Currently, most olefins are produced via thermal cracking of naphtha or other light fractions of petroleum with steam, which is often referred to as steam cracking. During the process, the hydrocarbon feedstock which usually of fossil origin, is cracked into smaller molecules. The process is innovative olefin technologies in terms of energy efficiency. The resulting product mix from the cracking process which varies depending on the process c...

How Has Physical Theatre Changed Over Time Essay

Physical theatre is a form of performance where movement and physicality of the body has the main part within a performance. There are several quite distinct traditions of performance which all describe themselves using the term â€Å"physical theatre†, which has led to a lot of confusion as to what the definition of physical theatre actually is. The term physical theatre has been applied to performances consisting mainly of mime, contemporary dance, theatrical clowning and other physical comedy (such as slapstick), puppetry and mask work and theatrical acrobatics and lifts. One of the early practitioners of physical theatre was Artaud. His ideas included total theatre, wherein actors appeal to all of the audience’s senses; he rejected the idea of the proscenium arch and directed his actors to use the space in different ways. It was also his view that in performance, all expression was physical expression. Whereas Steven Berkoff’s style incorporates actors using their whole bodies, including facial expressions to tell the audience the story, and actors using their bodies to create sound effects. He is also a great believer in Le Coq’s seven states of tension, in this exercise the actor will move through seven different body states, starting off as exhausted and lazy and finishing in an the highest state of tension. The style of physical theatre can differ widely, but generally in a performance of physical theatre the audience would expect to see: elements of contemporary dance (fluid, graceful movements), detailed mime, as there are often limited props in physical theatre performances, complex lifts sometimes with several people, acrobatics and gymnastics and many fast-paced moments where actors will be stretching the limits of their bodies. One of the first instances of physicality being used within theatres was by the Greeks, as they used a lot of mime and pantomime acts within their performances. The performance of pantomime originates from Ancient Greece, the first recorded pantomime actor being TelestÄ“s in the play Seven Against Thebes by Aeschylus. Mime is u sed to give actors a way of portraying feelings, emotions, and entire stories through movement and expression, which helps in telling the overall story. It gives a focus on expression and movement, and it takes away speech, which makes performers use their bodies and their faces to show to the audience what is happening, therefore making it physical theatre as the body is used rather than the voice. Around the  16th century, Italian theatre developed, what they called, Commedia dell’arte, which is a form of theatre characterized by masked â€Å"types† which began in Italy in the 16th century. The Commedia dell’art characters first began to appear in English plays around 1660. This style of theatre has three important aspects to it; mask, music and costumes. The audience was able to pick up from each character’s dress the type of person he was representing. For example, loose–fitting garments alternated with very tight, and jarring color contrasts opposed monochrome outfits. Males would identify themselves with character-specific costumes and half masks and all the fixed character types, the figure s of fun or satire, wore colored leather masks. Today in Italy handcrafted theatre masks are still created in the ancient tradition of carnacialesca (carnival). Commedia dell’arte is classed as physical theatre as masks forced actors to project their characters’ emotions through the body. Leaps, tumbles, stock gags, obscene gestures and slapstick antics were incorporated into their acts. Pantomime (informally panto), is a type of musical comedy stage production, designed for family entertainment. The origins of pantomime go back to ancient Rome, and was developed in England to generally be performed during the Christmas and New Year season. Modern pantomime includes songs, slapstick comedy and dancing, employs gender-crossing actors, and combines topical humour with a story loosely based on a well-known fairy tale. It is a participatory form of theatre, in which the audience is expected to sing along with certain parts of the music and shout out phrases to the performers. The development of English pantomime was strongly influenced by commedia dell’arte. This was a â€Å"comedy of professional artists† travelling from province to province in Italy and then France, who improvised and told comic stories that held lessons for the crowd, changing the main character depending on where they were performing. Pantomime mainly incorperated song, dance, buffoonery, slapstick, cross-dressing, in-jokes, topical references, audience participation, and mild sexual innuendo. The general movement within Pantomime creates physical theatre as the storyline is presented to the audience mainly through lifts, dance and slapstick, although performers also use their voice throughout. The Theatre of the Absurd is the name for particular plays of absurdist fiction written by a number of primarily European playwrights in the late 1950s, as well as one  for the style of theatre which has evolved from their work. Their work expressed what happens when human existence has no meaning or purpose and therefore all communication breaks down, alerting their audiences to pursue the opposite. The Absurd in these plays takes the form of man’s reaction to a world apparently without meaning, and/or man as a puppet controlled or menaced by invisible outside forces. Theatre of the Absurd consisted of horrific or tragic images; characters caught in hopeless situations forced to do repetitive or meaningless actions; dialogue full of clichà ©s, wordplay, and nonsense; plots that are cyclical or absurdly expansive. The term â€Å"Theatre of the Absurd† was coined by the critic Martin Esslin, who made it the title of a book on the subject first published in 1961. The â€Å"Absurd† or â€Å"New Theater† movement was originally a Paris-based form of theatre, tied to extremely small theatres. There are many conventions of â€Å"absurd† theatre, such as words often appearring to have lost their denotative function, thus creating misunderstanding among the characters. Instead, language gains a certain rhythmical, almost musical quality; no plot, minimal staging, babbling; abstract setting, â€Å"It is sometimes said to express the ‘human condition’ in a basic or ‘existential’ way† (Worthen 1639 ). Pirandello, one of the first experimentalists, wanted to bring down the fourth wall that was created by Realism, thus creating more physicality and a deeper connection with the audience. Modern physical theatre has grown from a variety of origins. Mime and theatrical clowning schools, such as L’Ecole Internationale de Theatre Jacques Lecoq in Paris, have had a big influence on many modern expressions of physical theatre. Practitioners such as Steven Berkoff and John Wright received their initial training at theatre schools just like this. Contemporary Dance has also had a strong influence on what is regarded as physical theatre, partly because most physical theatre requires the performers to have a level of physical control and flexibility. This is rarely found in those who do not have some sort of movement background. Modern physical theatre also has strong roots in more ancient traditions such as Commedia dell’arte and some people suggest this links to the ancient greek theatre. Eastern Theatre traditions have influenced a number of practitioners who have then influenced physical theatre. A number of Oriental traditions have a high level of physical t raining, and are visual masterpieces. Antonin Artaud was fascinated with the energy and  visual nature of Balinese theatre and wrote extensively on it. He admired Eastern theatre because of the highly ritualized and precise physicality of Balinese dance performance, and advocated what he called a â€Å"Theatre of Cruelty†, which he used to create physical theatre within performances and to describe a form of theatre that he hoped would unleash unconscious responses in audiences and performers that were normally inaccessible. Another physical theatre practioner, Steven Berkoff, used techniques such as background movement, repetitive actions, and mime to explore further the ways in which he approaches exchanges between two characters. Berkoff said that it was important â€Å"to see how I could bring mime together with the spoken word as its opposite partner, creating the form and structure of the piece†. Berkoff also used a theory he called Total Theatre, which is key to him and stemmed from Artaud’s theatre style. Total Theatre maintains that every aspect of theatre must have purpose: every movement, that is chor eographed; to each line, that is learned perfectly; to each lighting effect, that is used to convey a mood or message; to each sound effect, that enhances the audience’s experience; to each prop that has a use. The aim of Total Theatre is to create extreme moods to give the audience an overwhelming experience and to shock, amuse, scare, or amaze them. As a result of Total Theatre, performances are often minimalist, with bare stages and little language so that the focus remains on the physical movement and not on all the effects or the creation of a scene. This serves to detach the audience from the play and make them think about what was being said. However, from 1911 to 1916 Stanislavski, proposed that actors study and experience subjective emotions and feelings and perform these experiences to audiences by physical and vocal means. While in the early stages his ‘system’ focused on creating truthful emotions and embodying them, even though he later worked on the Method of Physical Actions. Its focus was on physical actions as a means to access truthful emotion, and involved improvisation. The focus remained on reaching the subconscious through the conscious. In other words, he wanted the performer to focus internally to portray a character’s emotions onstage. Later, between 1934 and 1938, this technique evolved to a method of physical actions in which emotions are produced through the use of actions. From Greek theatre to modern day, physical theatre has been used by many different practitioners and theatre  groups for one sole purpose; to impact the audience. On one hand, the mime and Commedia dell’arte that the Greeks first developed is still used widely today; mime is still an extremely popular form expression within plays, and commedia dell’arte is still extremely popular in creating humorous performances using masks, and over-exaggerated costumes. Similarly, pantomime is still one of the most popular forms of theatrical entertainment used across the world, achieving physical theatricality by including slapstick, lifts and dances, occasional mask work and costumes. This is effective as it provides the audience with the storyline in a less conventional and, arguably, more interesting way. It intrigues the audience, and makes them feel more emotionally connected with the characters involved in the performance, especially when the performers break the fourth wall, which frequently happens during pantomimes. However it can also be argued that many things have changed as time passed in regards to physical theatre. As technology advanced, the use of lighting and special fx have made creating a dramatic and intense atmosphere easier. Breaking the fourth wall is also a new idea, as the Greeks and Romans believed that the audience should not be included in the performance, and should purely be onlookers, whereas Artaud and Stanislavski believed that by bringing the audience into the performance, it would not only make it more intense and engaging, it would also achieve the â€Å"attacking the senses† criteria that Artaud believed in, by using â€Å"in yer face† theatre to scream and shout in the audience’s face. Physical theatre as it is used today, is st ill very popular with both performers and audiences, as it is both entertaining to watch and perform.